FAMILY-LUCANIDAE-STAG BEETLES

 

This is a moderately sized family (appx. 90 species ww) of very large beetle (1 to 4 inches). 

Like all beetles, Stag Beetles have chewing mouthparts and hardened front wings (elytra) that meet in a straight line down the back of the abdomen when closed.  Stag beetles range from reddish brown to black and have long legs with spiny tibia that are wide at the tips (pictured below left). The antennae are often elbowed with a comb-like club on the end (below right).  Stag beetles are similar in appearance to the closely related Bess Beetles (Passalidae), but bess beetles do not have elbowed antennae and stag beetles do not have a horn like bess beetles have.  There are 30 different species of stag beetles in the US.  Two-thirds of them live in the western half of the country, but Kentucky is home to several species.
Like all beetles, stag beetles have "complete" metamorphosis with egg, larval, pupal, and adult stages.  In many stag beetle species, females lay their eggs on or under the bark of dead, fallen trees.  Upon hatching, larvae chew their way into the tree and feed on the juices of the decaying wood.  Once they complete development (a process which may take several years), the larvae pupate in small chambers in the soil near their food source.  When the adult emerges it searches for a mate.  The males in some species use their huge jaws to fight each other over females.  Adults live for 1-2 years, depending on the species.

 

 

 

Stag beetles are slow-moving herbivores that climb well and are believed to feed on leaves, sap, and aphid honeydew.  Most species are found in wooded areas, but there are a few species from other parts of the world that live on beaches.  Not much is known about the feeding habits of adult stag beetles, but they are often seen flying to lights at night during the summer.  When disturbed, a stag beetle will rear back and hold its head high with its mandibles open.
Because they help with the decomposition of dead trees, stag beetle larvae (like termites and other creatures) are a vital part of the forest ecosystem.  No healthy hardwood forest in Kentucky is without stag beetle larvae. Stag beetles and their larvae are food for a variety of animals, including birds, lizards, snakes, toads, raccoons, centipedes, and mustellids (weasels, skunks, etc.).

 

  

  Male stag beetles with greatly exaggerated mandibles. 

 

 

FAMILY CICINDELLIDAE-TIGER BEETLES.

 

The name tiger beetle is thought to be derived from their fierce predatory behavior, speed of movement and possibly coloration.  Almost all species have elongated legs, are very fast and quickly take flight when disturbed.  Some tiger beetles can run at a speed of 5 mph. For its size it has been suggested that they are technically the fastest running land animals.   Estimations have shown that the tiger beetle could easily reach speeds of 200-300 mph if it was proportionately the size of a human.

Tiger beetles often have large bulging eyes, long, slender legs and large curved mandibles. All are predatory, both as adults and as larvae.  While members of the genus Cicindela are usually diurnal and may be out on the hottest days, Tetracha, Omus, Amblycheila and Manticora are all nocturnal. Both Cicindela and Tetracha are often brightly colored, while the other genera mentioned are usually uniform black in color. Tiger beetles in the genus Manticora are the largest in size of the subfamily. These live primarily in the deserts of South Africa.

The larvae of tiger beetles live in cylindrical burrows as much as a meter deep. They are large-headed, hump-backed grubs that flip backwards to capture prey insects that wander over the ground. The fast-moving adults run down their prey and are extremely fast on the wing, their reaction times being of the same order as that of common houseflies. Some tiger beetles in the tropics are arboreal, but most run on the surface of the ground. They live along sea and lake shores, on sand dunes, around playa lakebeds and on clay banks or woodland paths, being particularly fond of sandy surfaces. Tiger beetles have been considered as good indicator species and have been used in ecological studies on biodiversity.       

 

 

                                                                                                                                            Tiger beetle.

 

 

 

FAMILY-CLERIDAE-CHECKERED BEETLES.

 

                                                                                               

Typical checkered beetles .   Image courtesy of Dave Britton.  

 

The Cleridae family has a worldwide distribution, and a variety of habitats and feeding preferences. This is a relatively small family of small to medium sized beetles.  Their overall appearance and shape of the adults are somewhat distinctive.  Most are brightly colored with patterns of red, orange or blues and most have a large number of fine erect hairs covering the adult body. 

Both the larvae and adults are predatory typically with the adults feeding on the adult stage of the prey and the larvae feeding on the larval stage of the prey.  Most are quite host specific and in certain situation are considered very beneficial.   Cleridae are found in a variety of habitats and and have equally diverse feeding habits, however, most are predaceous feeding on other beetles and larvae; however others are scavengers or pollen feeders. The most common prey for checkered beetles is bark beetles and wood boring beetles. Some checkered beetles are known to have an extremely voracious appetite with some larvae able to consume several times their own body weight in a day thus making them effective in biological control of their prey, especially since they are host specific..

An interesting component of some of the checkered beetles feeding behavior is the use of their prey (bark beetles) oviposition pheromone to locate them. Thanasimus undatulus is a predator of bark beetles. Some species of bark beetles such as the southern pine beetle and the mountain pine beetle are pests to the lumber industry because in large numbers they can cause damage and kill live trees. Researchers and forestry officials have used bark beetle aggregation pheromones to attract the checkered beetle to specific trees. This causes the bark beetles to be overwhelmed, extensively preyed upon by the Clerid beetles, and typically eliminated.

Redlegged Ham Beetle. Necrobia rufipes.  The red-legged ham beetle is a shiny metallic blue green beetle. The antennae are reddish brown with dark brown or black club at tip. The legs are reddish brown or orange. The elytra are covered with bristle-like hairs. The underside of abdomen is dark blue. The adults fly readily and disperse to form new colonies. The larvae are cream-grey grubs with mottled darker violet grey markings on the back.  It infests dried meats, smoked meats, and dried fish. It is most often found in products that are stored unwrapped for long periods. Adults feed on the surface of the products, and larvae bore into the product causing further damage.  N. rufipes has been recorded to have fed upon a large variety of items ranging from hides and dried figs to Egyptian mummies.  In addition, products such as wool and silk can become infested, but not destroyed. This beetle used to be much more important prior to the development of efficient refrigeration.

                                                                           Red-Legged Ham Beetle. Image courtesy of Michael Thomas, Florida Department Agriculture

 It has also been found feeding on fly larvae as well as the skin and bones of carrion.  Consequently the red-legged ham beetle is useful in forensic entomology.  Since it is attracted towards carrion in the later stages of decomposition its arrival on carrion can help provide an estimate for the time of death of a murder victim.    

 

FAMILY-BOSTRICHIDAE-FALSE POWDER POST BEETLES, TWIG BORERS

 

This is a fairly large group of beetles, comprised of approximately 70 US species, ranging in size from 1/8 to over 2 inches in length.  Most are black, cylindrical in shape and have short-clubbed antennae with 3 to 4 terminal segments.  When viewed from a dorsal angle, the head is almost totally hidden by the hood-like thorax.  In addition, when viewed from a side angle, much of the head is not visible as it is pulled into the thorax.  Most species possess pyramid shaped spines on the top of the prothorax (behind the head).  These beetles typically infest dead wood in nature and are not considered pests.  However, there is one species that is a stored product pest and a few that are wood pests.

 

 

 The lesser grain borer, a bostrichid that is a stored grain pest.  Image courtesy of Jim Kalisch, University of Nebraska, Entomology

 

The lead cable borer is one of the more interesting of the bostrichid beetles.  It is common along the Pacific Coast, particularly in Northern California and southern Oregon.  Outdoors, it normally infests dead and seasoned oak, but less commonly attacks acacia, eucalyptus, maple, California laurel and other hardwoods.  Adult beetles can reinfest wood from which they have emerged.  These beetles are occasional pests of hardwood paneling and floors.  They are also attracted to cork in wine bottles and can severely damage oak caskets that contain liquor or wine. There is only one generation per year and adults typically emerge in the summer months.  One of the more interesting facets of their biology is that this insect also bores into lead sheathing.  Actually a number of species of beetles and other insects bore into lead, but this is the more common and notorious of the lot.  We are not sure why this occurs but one author reports that the lead cable borer is greatly stimulated by heat.  As a result they are drawn to the heat absorbed by lead and even asphalt roofing.  The main damage due to this activity occurs in the lead sheathing of telephone wire.  The resultant 2mm diameter holes allow moisture to enter and short-circuit the lines.  Another common name is the short circuit beetles. 

 

 

  An adult lead cable borer.  Image courtesy of Univar Inc.

 

The bamboo borer is indigenous to Asia but has been shipped all over the world with its primary host, bamboo.  This is a small beetle with adults measuring approximately 1/8 inch in length. In parts of Asia, this beetle causes considerable damage to cut bamboo, one of the major materials used in home and furniture construction.  It also is a stored product pest infesting drugs, grain, flour and spices.  Even though it has undoubtedly been shipped to the United States in bamboo furniture an undetectable number of times, it has not become well established here and typically is not a major problem.

 

 

              

 

                                                              An adult bamboo borer- worldwide in distribution. Image courtesy of Univar Inc.

 

 

An additional problem with this insect in much of Asia is associated with the fine powdery frass that is expelled from the bamboo as the beetle larvae feed.  The frass contains small bamboo fibers that are rather abrasive.  Because bamboo is used in roofing construction, this fiber filters down onto inhabitants and can cause considerable itching. Considering the number of people living in Asia and the extent that bamboo is used in home construction, this may be one of the major human maladies of the world.

 

 

.  The lesser grain borer, a major stored grain pest. Image courtesy of Clemson University, USDA.

 

Lesser Grain Borers.  This stored product pest attacks mainly wheat, corn, rice and millet. Both the larvae and adults are primary pests. They bore irregularly shaped holes into whole, undamaged kernels and the larvae, immature stages, may develop inside the grain. Larval and adult feeding in and on grain kernels may leave only dust and thin brown shells. A sweet, musty odor is often associated with infestations of this insect.

 

The adults are 0.1 inch long, brown to black beetles with cylindrical bodies and numerous small pits on the wing covers. The head is directed downward and covered by the prothorax so that is t is not visible when the insect is viewed from above. The creamy white larva is a c-shaped grub with a small dark head that is partly retracted into the thorax. The thorax has three pairs of small legs.

 

The female deposits her eggs in clusters of 2 to about 30 on kernels. Most of the newly-hatched larvae chew into kernels and complete their entire development there. However, the larvae can feed on fines or can develop as free-living insects in the grain. There are four larval stages. Development from egg to adult requires about 25 days under ideal conditions of 93 degrees F and 12% moisture. Both the larvae and adults produce a large amount of frass or waste. Larval fecal pellets are pushed out of the kernel and large amounts can accumulate in the grain. The adults are winged and may fly to spread infestations.

 

Prevention is always the most economical and efficient method of controlling these pests. Once they are distributed within the grain mass, fumigation is the only method of relieving the problem.

 

 

FAMILY-ANOBIIDAE-FALSE POWDER POST BEETLES

 

Almost all anobiids are small measuring 5/16 inch or less in body length.  Their shape is quite variable but can be distinguished from the bostrichids in that the head is not pulled into the thorax and is readily visible, but as with the bostrichids, cannot be viewed from a dorsal angle as it is hooded by the thorax.  Their antennal shape is also variable but with most species that attack wood, the last 3 segments are elongated.  As with the bostricids the larval body is C-shaped, but unlike them it has well developed legs.

 

 

 Anobiid beetle illustrating elongated last 3 segments of antennae and head not visible from a dorsal angle.  Image courtesy of USDA Forest Service.

 

Of the 310 species of anobiids in the US the following are considered the most economically important.

 

Drug Store Beetle

Cigarette Beetle

Deathwatch Beetle

Furniture Beetle

 

Two of these species are stored product pests, namely the drugstore beetle and cigarette beetle.  They infest any of a variety of dried processed foods and drugs.  Unlike the wood infesting forms they have a relatively short life cycle.

 

 

The drug store beetles-a stored product pests.  Image courtesy of Clemson University Entomology.

 

The Drugstore beetle (Stegobium paniceum), also known as the Bread beetle or Biscuit beetle, is a tiny, brown beetle that can be found infesting a wide variety of products, and is among the most common non-weevils to be found there. They have a worldwide distribution and can be more commonly found in warmer climates. They are similar in appearance to the Cigarette beetle (Lasioderma serricorne), but are slightly larger (adults can be up to 3.5 mm in length). Additionally, drugstore beetles have antennae ending in 3-segmented clubs, while cigarette beetles have serrated antennae (notched like teeth of a saw). The Drugstore beetle also has grooves running longitudinally along the elytra, whereas the cigarette beetle is smooth.

Their larvae are small, white grubs, and they can be distinguished from the grubs of the Cigarette beetle by their shorter hair. The female can lay up to 75 eggs at once, and the larval period lasts up to several months depending on the food source. It is the larvae that are responsible for most of the damage that this species can cause.

As their name suggests, drugstore beetles have a tendency to feed on pharmacological products, including prescription drugs. They will also feed on a diverse range of dried foods and spices, as well as hair, leather, books, and museum specimens. They can bore into furniture, and in some cases tin foil or sheets of lead. The drugstore beetle lives in obligatory symbiosis with a yeast fungus, which is passed on to the offspring by covering the eggs with it.

The most effective method of ridding your home of these pests is to try and discover the source of the infestation. Once this has been found, efforts can be made in removing the root of the problem, which is usually related to bird nests, food and high humidity levels. Therefore steps will have to be taken in removing any birds nest from the premises (if this is the situation then ideally specialist advice should be sought), food residues and any food which has been left open; these steps should be followed by adopting measures to decrease the humidity levels; perhaps by way of a dehumidifier.

Once satisfaction has been reached in removing the main cause of the infestation, the immediate area of the outbreak should be cleaned thoroughly with a vacuum cleaner, paying special attention to small cracks and crevasses; ideally the area should be treated with an effective insecticide, too.

 

Cigarette Beetle-Lasioderma serricorne.  This species is commonly known as the cigarette beetle, is very similar in appearance to the drugstore beetle (Stegobium paniceum) and the common furniture beetle (Anobium punctatum), and all three species belong to the family Anobiidae.                                                                                                                             

As indicated by its common name, the cigarette beetle is a pest of tobacco, both in the refined cigarette packet presentation and also as stored in hogsheads and bales, but is also a minor pest of oilcake, oilseeds, cereals, dried fruit, sage, flour, and some animal products.

The female beetle lays around 100 eggs loosely on the commodity. The hatching larvae are the "grow bag" stage of the insect are active and will move around on and bore into the product, feeding as they go. The complete life cycle takes 26 days at 37 °C and 120 days at 20 °C.  L. serricorne cannot tolerate the cold; adults die within 6 days at 4 °C, and eggs survive 5 days at 0–5 °C.

The beetles carry a symbiotic yeast, Symbiotaphrina kochii that is transmitted to the next generation superficially on the eggs and carried internally in larvae and adults in the mycetome, a specialized organ that is linked to the gut. The yeast cells assist in the digestion of less nutritious foods, supply needed B-vitamins and sterols, and provide resistance to certain toxins.

 

The wood infesting forms of these beetles typically deposit their eggs in crack and crevices in wood, in end cuts of lumber or in emergence holes of the adults.  Uninfested lumber with paint or varnish is less susceptible to their attack.  Their life cycles are quite long, completing one generation every 2 years under ideal conditions but can be extended to 5 years under unfavorable conditions.  They typically attack sapwood of both hard and soft wood with moisture content between 14 to 30 percent.  There is also a preference for wood 10 years or older.

 

Deathwatch Beetles.   The death watch beetle (Xestobium rufovillosum). The adult is approximately 7 mm long.  To attract mates, these woodborers create a tapping or ticking sound that can be heard in old building rafters during quiet summer nights. They are therefore associated with quiet, sleepless nights and are named for the vigil (watch) kept besides the dying or dead, and by extension the superstitious have seen the death watch as an omen of impending death. The term "death watch" has been applied to a variety of other ticking insects including Anobium striatum, some of the so-called booklice of the family Psocidae. The larva is very soft, yet can bore its way through wood, which it is able to digest. In its alimentary canal there are pockets of yeast which function to digest celluose. The mother beetle has two receptacles of yeast located near the orifice from which she lays eggs, and therefore each egg emerges with yeast clinging to the shell. When the larva nibbles its way out of the shell it swallows some of the yeast.

 

                                                                                                     

                                                                                       Death Watch Beetle.  Image Courtesy Sarefo.

 

In popular culture. In 1787, antiquarian Francis Grose included the death watch beetle in his three-page inventory of contemporary omens of death.

§         The death watch beetle appears in a nativity song in which the innkeeper complains repeatedly that "there's death watch beetle in the roof."

§         In the story "The Tell-Tale Heart" by Edgar Allan Poe, the death watch beetle is mentioned simply as "deathwatches" The narrator hears it tapping in the walls while he watches his victim in his bedchamber.^[2]

§         In Mark Twain's Tom Sawyer the beetle is heard while Tom is waiting in bed for Huck Finn to show up for a night at the graveyard.

§         In the George Orwell novel A Clergyman's Daughter the death watch beetle is mentioned as the reason for the church's sagging roof: "...beside the Church Expenses box two fragments of riddled beam explained mutely that this was due to that mortal foe of Christendom, the death-watch beetle."

§         The death watch beetle also appears in Julian Barnes' A History of the World in 10½ Chapters.

§         It also appeared in Ian Fleming's Thunderball and in Ray Bradbury's Something Wicked This Way Comes. In addition, it is featured in Alice Hoffman's novel Practical Magic as well as in its film adaptation. The death watch beetle is portrayed in the film version as physical evidence of a family curse. In one scene, the character Sally (played by Sandra Bullock) desperately searches for the death watch beetle, thinking that if she finds and destroys it, her husband will not die.

§         The death watch beetle is spoken of in the History channel documentary series Life After People. One hundred years after people no longer exist, the Mona Lisa is eaten by these beetles because it is painted on wood and a small hole from dust created an opportunity for moisture, forming an ideal habitat for the beetle.

 

The California deathwatch beetle is the most common species along the Pacific Coast. The adults range in size from 2.5 to 5.5 mm in length with striated elytra and are humpback in appearance. This is the most destructive of the false powder post beetles in the US.  As with other species, it prefers old wood and does most of it damage in crawl spaces where high humidity exists.

 

 

                                                                                             FAMILY-LYCTIDAE-POWDER POST BEETLES

 

Powder post beetles are relatively small (3 to 7 mm in length), dark brown to reddish-brown in color and possess an elongated body. These beetles can readily be distinguished from the other two families of beetles that reinfest wood by the presence of a two-segment club forming the tip of the antennae.

 

These beetles are small beetles ranging in body length from 2 to 7 mm in length.  They are comparatively slender parallel-sided beetles and characterized by having an antennae with a 2-segmented terminal club (Figures 13 and 14).

 

 

  A true powder post beetle belonging to the genus Lyctus.  Image courtesy of USDA Forest Service.

 

In the United States there are 10 species of true powder post beetles of which 6 are of economic concern.  In the continental US these pests are second only to the termites as far as insect destruction of lumbered wood but confine their damage to large pored hardwoods such as oak, hickory, ash and bamboo.  These beetles attack any product made of these woods including hardwood flooring, furniture, toys, statues, gunstocks, axe handles and similar objects. Their damage eventually consists of the larvae reducing infested items to mere shells filled with their very fine powdery frass.  Unfortunately signs of their damages are not visible until the adult emergence and completion of their life cycle.

 

 

  Pin sized emergence holes of powder post beetles.  Image courtesy of USDA Forest Service.

 

Adult beetles are nocturnal and fly to lights, a behavior that may be useful in detecting an infestation.  Their eggs are deposited in the pores of hardwood, which are exposed when the wood is cut or the female may open them herself.  Finely sanded, painted, varnished or other finished wood is not normally suited for egg laying.  Upon hatching the young larvae tunnel with the grain but eventual can take an irregular course.  As they feed they pack their tunnels with the very fine powdery frass.  The entire life cycle of powderpost beetles from deposition of the egg until emergence of the adult may be completed in as little as 6 months or may be extended to years under unfavorable conditions.

 

As with the other two families of beetles that reinfest wood, lyctid larvae are C-shaped; however, unlike bostrichid larvae but as with anobiids, lyctid larvae possess well developed legs.  However, the latter two can be separated by the fact that the legs of anobiid larvae have 3 segments and no terminal claws while those of a lyctid are 5 segmented with a claw at the end.

 

 

Larval stage of a true powder post beetles.  Image courtesy of USDA Forest Services.

 

 

                                                                             FAMILY-BUPRESTIDAE-FLAT HEADED BORERS

 

Adults of this family can readily be recognized by their flattened and boat-shaped bodies and the fact that there is metallic coloration somewhere on the body.  The shape of the larvae is quite distinctive with a broadened, flattened thoracic area and no legs . The family is among the largest of the beetles, with some 15,000 species known in 450 genera.

The larger and more spectacularly colored jewel beetles are highly prized by insect collectors. The  elytra of some Buprestidae species have been traditionally used in beetle wing jewelry and decoration in certain countries in Asia, like India, Thailand and Japan.  A variety of bright colors are known, often in complicated patterns. The iridescence common to these beetles is not due to pigments in the exoskeleton, but instead physical iridescence in which microscopic texture in their cuticle selectively reflects specific frequencies of light in particular directions. This is the same effect that makes a compact disc reflect multiple colors.

 

                                                      

 

Adult and Larvae of Metallic Wood Boring Beetle.  Right Image Courtesy of James Solomon, USDA Forest

As previously indicated, these beetles almost always (there are rare exceptions) require bark to be present for egg laying.  In rare instances they can deposit their eggs on fire scarred or freshly cut lumber or, even more rarely, old lumber.  The larvae bore throughout the tree or in some species beneath the bark.  These beetles normally attack trees that are either cut, disease, damaged by fire or in some other way have lost their vigor.  Some species are attracted to recently-burned forests to lay their eggs. They can sense pine wood smoke for up to 50 miles away, and can see infrared light, helping them to zero in as they get closer to a forest fire. They will bite if they feel threatened, and can aggregate to swarms of biting beetles in recently burned areas.

Healthy trees have copious amounts of sap that serve as a defensive mechanism against beetle attack. In healthy trees sap tends to drown out hatching larvae.  As a consequence wood boring beetles rarely deposit their eggs on the bark of healthy trees.  However, when a tree is stressed its sap flow drops and beetles and other wood boring insects are readily attracted.  Hatching larvae mine heartwood as well as sapwood.  Their mines tend to be flattened taking on the shape of the enlarged larval thoracic area and are tightly packed with powdery frass, a characteristic which can be used to distinguish them from the mines of round headed borers.  The mines of round-headed borers are circular in shape and are loosely filled with a mixture of fibrous and powdery material.

 

The life cycle of metallic wood-boring beetles is quite long requiring 1 to 3 years to complete development.  However, if an infested tree is lumbered, the cycle of any surviving larvae in the wood can be greatly extended.  Lumber contains less moisture and nutrients than living or freshly cut trees.  In extreme cases this cycle may be extended to 20 or more years.

 

Occasionally adult buprestids do emerge from the walls and other wooden structures in the home.  Invariably these are surviving larvae that have completed their development and “were built into the house.”  This is fairly rare as most lumber is kiln dried and any infesting larvae cannot survive this process.

 

                                                                                              FAMILY CUCUJIIDAE.

These are sometimes called flat bark beetles are a family of distinctively flat beetles found worldwide under the bark of dead and live trees. The family consists of about 40 species in four genera.

                                                                                                    

                                                                                   Cucujiidae.  Image Courtesy of Laisverobotams

Cucujidae have elongate parallel-side bodies ranging from 6 to 25 mm in length. Most are brown colored, while others are black, reddish or yellow. Heads are triangular in shape, with an eleven segmented filiform antennae and large mandibles. The pronotum is narrower than the head.

Both larvae and adult live under the bark, otherwise little is known of their habits. The family was formerly larger, with subfamilies Laemophloeinae, Silvaninae, and Passandrinae (and some tenebrionoid genera mixed in), but recent revisions have raised the subfamilies to family status.  Most species are found under loose bark although there are a few species that are stored grain pests.

 

                                                                                                FAMILY-CERAMBYCIDAE-ROUND HEADED BORERS.

 

These beetles are also referred to as the long horned beetles.  As this name implies, most but not all adults have elongated antennae, which in some cases can be as long as or longer than the entire length of the body.  Most have an elongated cylindrical shaped body and are further characterized by the fact that the first antennal segment (where it attaches to the head) is at least 5 times longer than the second.

 

                                                                                                              

                                                                                         

 

                                                                                                 

                                     Left. Typical shape of longhorned beetle. Right. A longhorned beetle illustrating first antennal segment 5 times longer than the second.

 

The larval stage is a legless and club-shaped grub.  The term, round headed borer, refers to the cylindrical tunnel this larva leaves as it bores through wood.  As with the metallic wood boring beetles, these beetles rarely reinfest and typically require bark for oviposition. Their life cycle is very similar to that of the metallic wood boring beetles typically requiring several years to complete development in cut timber or stress trees.  Again the cycle may be greatly extended once infested trees are lumbered.

 

 

Huge club-shaped legless grub of a long horned beetle.  Image courtesy of Gerald Lenhard, Louisiana State University.

 

One of the more common long horned beetles found completing its development in lumber from infested trees is the new house borer.  This species is prevalent throughout most of the western United States and western Canada.  It attacks pine and Douglas fir, especially in fire swept areas.  When lumber from such trees is built into homes, the emergence holes of the adults may be found in hardwood flooring, linoleum, plaster, plasterboard or any other covering of the infested framing of the home.  Although the entire life cycle of these beetles is around 2 years, the emergence of the adult beetles typically occurs within the first year of building.  The apparent reason is that as the lumber dries out, it does not support development and the infesting larvae do not survive.

 

In recent years infestations by these beetles and others that do not reinfest are on an increase.  The apparent reason for this is that lumber costs are increasing and therefore the use of lesser grades of lumber in home construction is correspondingly on an increase.  In the past fire damage trees (attractive to these beetles) were generally rejected for the production of lumber.

 

One notable exception to the “rule” that long horned beetles do not typically reinfest” is the old house borer.  This beetle is spread throughout much of the eastern US to as far west as Texas.  Reinfestation in homes is common and in some areas this can be a serious structural pest.  As with the new house borer this species only attacks softwoods.  Most damage from this beetle occurs in attic framing in the northeast and substructure along the mid-Atlantic coast.  Fumigation is an effective treatment for this pest.

 

Eucalyptus Longhorn Borer, Phorocantha semipunctata. This is a serious and destructive beetle pest of eucalyptus trees. Native to Australia, it has spread to eucalyptus cultivation areas on all continents. Until recently, California's eucalyptus trees were considered virtually pest free. However, in 1984, this beetle was detected in dying eucalyptus trees in Orange County, the first North American record. Since then, this pest has been detected in almost all southern California counties and is expected to occur wherever eucalyptus is grown.

 

              Adult beetles are approximately one-inch in length and black and brown in color.  The larvae feed beneath the bark of eucalyptus trees, creating sawdust filled tunnels.  Upon inspection circular exit holes 1/2 to 3/4 inches in diameter are readily visible. Lines of sap on the trunk may originate from these holes.  Saplings may die within the first year after infestation due to trunk girdling and mature trees may die within 2 years of infestation.  The movement of infested eucalyptus firewood spreads these beetles. Adult are strong fliers and may fly several miles from their emergence site to find suitable egg laying locations.

 

                                                                                                               

 

                An adult eucalyptus borer.

 

              As far as is currently known, all eucalyptus species grown in California are susceptible. Previous research suggested that only stressed trees were attacked, but recent studies indicate that even healthy trees can become infested. They attack freshly cut or fallen eucalyptus logs and branches as well as living trees.

 

              There is no fail-safe method to prevent attack by these beetles. The best approach is to maintain trees in a vigorous condition. Prevent dry season water stress with periodic deep irrigation. Eucalyptus firewood should be tightly covered with a tarp or plastic sheet for at least six months after cutting. This will prevent escape of emerging adults, which could attack surrounding trees and will prevent egg laying by free flying adults. Pruning branches and cutting firewood during winter and early spring when adults are not active also reduces the chances of spreading this pest.

 

 Asian Longhorned Beetle-Anoplophora glabripennis .  The Asian Longhorned Beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis) (ALB) is native to China and other areas of the Far East, where it causes widespread destruction of poplar, willow, elm and maple  trees. The beetle, known as the Starry Sky or Sky Beetle in China, is a large black insect, with white spots dashed irregularly on its elytra (wing covers). Adults are typically 1–1.5 inches (2.5–3.8 cm) long. The distinctive long antennae that give the beetle its common name are as long as the body in females and almost twice the body length in males.

                                                                                    

                                                                                      Adult Asian Longhorned Beetle. Image Courtesy US Forest Service.

The ALB is considered an invasive species in North America, where it is a serious threat to many species of deciduous hardwood trees. During the larval stage, the ALB bores deep into a tree's heartwood, where it feeds on the tree's nutrients. The tunneling damages and eventually kills the tree. Tree species considered ALB host species include all species of maple (Norway, sugar, silver, and red maple) as well as Horse chestnut, Poplar, Willow, Birch, London plane, Mountain ash, Mimosa (silk tree), Elm and Hackberry.

While the Asian long horned beetle can fly for distances of 400 yards (400 m) or more in search of a host tree, they tend to lay eggs in the same tree from which they emerged as adults, migrating only when population density becomes too high. During the summer months a mated adult ALB female chews 35 to 90 individual depressions into the host tree's bark and lays an egg in each of the pits. The eggs hatch in 10-15 days and the resulting grub’s tunnel into the tree's phloem and cambium layers beneath the tree bark. After several weeks, the larvae tunnel deeper in the tree's heartwood where they mature into pupae. The pupae hatch into adults inside the tree over the winter months. The full-grown adult ALBs chew their way out of the tree the next spring and summer, as early as May and as late as October or November, depending on climate. In the process, they leave perfectly round exit holes that are approximately 1 cm (3/8") in diameter.

Signs of Asian Long-horned Beetle infestation include: the perfectly round, 1 cm exit holes; frass, a sawdust-like material made up of tree shavings and insect waste; and oozing sap. Dead and dying tree limbs or branches and yellowing leaves when there has been no drought also signal ALB infestation. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) research indicates this beetle can survive and reproduce in most sections of the country where suitable host trees exist.

                                                                                                                 

                                                                                    Adult emergence holes and oozing sap. Image Courtesy US Forest Service.

Adult ALBs can be seen from late spring to fall, depending on the climate. The ALB was first discovered in the United States in 1996 in the Greenpoint section of Brooklyn. Shortly after, another infestation was detected in Amityville on Long Island. Since then infestations have been found in the Islip area of Long Island in Queens and in Manhattan. In fact, several infested trees were removed around Central Park. The ALB was discovered in Chicago in 1998. An ALB infestation was detected in Hudson County, New Jersey in 2002 and in the Central New Jersey Middlesex and Union Counties in 2004. In 2008 a sizeable infestation was discovered in Worcester, Massachusetts. Ongoing inspection of host trees within a 74 sq mile quarantine area has revealed that 2500 trees are infested; there is some evidence that the infestation may date back as far as 1997.

Beetles have been discovered in southern Ontario, as well as parts of Nova Scotia, Canada.

Alert workers have uncovered and reported ALBs in warehouses in CA, FL, IL, IN, MI, NC, NJ, NY, OH, PA, SC, TX, WA, WI, and in British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario and Nova Scotia in Canada.  The beetle has also invaded Britain, Austria and Germany.

The ALB was believed to have arrived in New York City in the 1980s in wood packing material. According to Victor Mastro, the Director of Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service Laboratory on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, the center of the infection zone was a warehouse which imported plumbing supplies from China. The infestations in Hudson County, New Jersey and on Long Island are believed to have spread from the Brooklyn point of entry. The infestations in Chicago and central New Jersey are believed to have come from a separate point of entry.

The Greenpoint infestation was first reported by Ingram Carter of Greenpoint on a Saturday in August 1996. The Amityville infestation was brought, inadvertently, from Brooklyn by the Mike Ryan Tree Services, a tree pruning company, which performs work for the NYNEX telephone company.

Over 6,000 infested trees have been cut down and destroyed to eradicate ALB from New York and over 1,550 trees in Chicago and almost 23,000 trees in NewYork.  Infested trees continue to be discovered with18, 000 trees removed in Worcester, Ma. The December 12, 2008 ice storm likely resulted in significant moving of infested downed limbs because of frantic homeowners clearing debris within the infestation following the devastating ice storm. This has complicated the eradication effort. A Worcester exterminator has had a beetle in his collection since 1997, and USDA APHIS PPQ has confirmed his finding, meaning the beetle has been in Worcester for at least 11 years, giving it a very long time to move about, especially since vehicles were often parked under infested trees, giving the beetles an opportunity to drop onto cars and be transported elsewhere.

The US Federal government is trying to eradicate this species primarily for two reasons:

§         If it becomes established it could significantly impact natural forests and urban environment, with an estimated death toll of 1.2 billion trees if it spread nationwide.

§         Due to the current limited infestation size, it is believed that eradication efforts can be successful.

The steps that have been taken to eliminate the ALB include:

§         Quarantines. Quarantines have been established around infested areas to prevent accidental spread of ALB by people.

§         Infested trees cut, chipped and burned. All infested trees are being removed, chipped in place, and the chips are being burned. The stumps of infested trees are ground to below the soil level. All tree removal is done by certified tree care personnel to ensure that the process is completed properly.

§         Insecticide treatments. Research is underway to determine the effectiveness of certain insecticides such as imidacloprid against ALB. Insecticidal treatments have begun in New York and Chicago in hopes of preventing and containing infestations. Chicago's program of imidacloprid treatments for healthy trees of potential host species within a one-eighth to one-half mile (200–800 m) radius of infested trees successfully removed Illinois from quarantine in August 2006. As of December 2006, New Jersey's policy was to cut down all healthy trees of the potential host species within a one-eighth to one-quarter mile (200–400 m) radius of infested trees.

§         Extensive surveys. All host trees on public and private property located within an established distance from an infested area are surveyed by trained personnel. Infested areas are re-surveyed at least once per year for 3-5 years after the last beetle or infested tree is found.

§         Shipping restrictions. The use of Solid Wood Packing Materials (SWPM) for maritime shipping are regulated for adequate treatment methods at certain ports.

US customs regulations were changed on September 18, 1998 (effective December 17, 1998) to require wooden packing materials from China to be chemically treated or kiln-dried to prevent further infestations of the Asian long-horned beetle from arriving. Pest inspection, new rules, and public awareness are the key steps to prevention of the spread of the Asian longhorned beetle.

Trees that are being planted to replace host trees include: serviceberry or shadbush, ironwood, Southern catalpa, Turkish filbert, ginkgo, honey locust, Kentucky coffee tree, tuliptree, dawn redwood, white oak, swamp white oak, bur oak, English oak, Japanese lilac, bald cypress, basswood, and little-leaf linden.

Largest Beetle in Worlds. Titan beetle (Titanus giganteus) is the largest known beetle in the Amazon rainforest and one of the largest (if not largest) insect species in the world. The titan beetle is the only member of its own genus. It is known from the rain forests of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, the Guianas, and north-central Brazil, where it is most commonly collected by the use of mercury-vapor lamps, to which the males are attracted. There is a local 'cottage industry' in French Guiana of leading tours specifically to collect specimens of this beetle (which can command prices over US$500), and other countries' ecotourism agencies mention these beetles in their advertisements.

Adults can grow up to 6.5 inches in length. It is said that their mandibles can snap pencils in half and cut into human flesh. Adult titan beetles do not feed; they simply fly around to find mates. They are attracted to bright lights after dark. There is an extensive sequence towards the end of Sir David Attenborough's Life in the Undergrowth series (in the version released in the UK) which prominently features a hunt for this beetle. In it, an adult specimen was found and brought back to Oxford University. Because the adults do not eat, this specimen was cared for until it died.

                                                                                       

                                                                                Titan Beetle.  Largest Beetle in World.  Image Courtesy of Karmesinkoenig

The larvae have never been found, but are thought to feed inside wood and may take several years to reach full size before they pupate. Boreholes thought to be created by titan beetle larvae seem to fit a grub over two inches wide and perhaps as much as one foot long. A famous "life-size" photograph of a putative larva of this beetle appeared in National Geographic Magazine, filling an entire page, but it was of a different species of beetle, possibly Macrodontia cervicornis. The adults defend themselves by hissing in warning, and have sharp spines as well as strong jaws.

Macrodontia cervicornis.  This is the largest and best-known member of this genus of long-horned beetles. This species is sometimes considered the second longest among all beetles, with known specimens exceeding 7 inches in length. A fair bit of this length, however, is due to the enormous mandibles, from which it derives both of the names in its name Macrodontia means "large tooth", and cervicornis means "deer antler". For that reason, it is generally excluded from consideration by purists who do not take the jaws, legs, or antennae of a beetle into account when determining length. It is very attractive to insect collectors and can be priced at up to $500.This species is known from the rain forests of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, the Guianas, and Brazil. Additional described species in the genus extend the overall range of the genus from Guatemala to Argentina.

                                                                               

                                                                                                  Macrodontia cervicornis-One of the World’s Largest Beetles.

 

            FAMILY-SCOLYTIDAE-BARK BEETLES AND AMBROSIA BEETLES.

 

                         These are relatively small (3 to 5 mm length), cylindrical robust beetles with a head that is partially or   completely concealed when viewed from above.  Their   

                         antennae are short with a 3 to 4 segmented terminal club that can be compacted in a tight ball.

 

               

 

                A typical scollid or bark beetle.  Image courtesy of Ron Long, Simon Fraser University.

 

                       The bark beetles are one of, if not the most, important of our forest pests.  Huge numbers of these beetles are attracted to trees that are weakened by drought, forest fires, disease or merely by lack of sufficient light (under-story trees).  In these conditions, or even if a tree is merely cut, its natural defense of sap flow is greatly reduced.  Trees in this condition release chemical odors that attract these beetles.  In addition, once a beetle is attracted to a tree and begins to feed, it releases an aggregation pheromone that is produced in its gut. This chemical attracts other individuals of the same species, which in turn releases more pheromone and in time thousands of beetles are attracted to the weakened tree.  This mass attack eventually kills the tree. This is a very effective means of finding susceptible trees.  Healthy trees do not release chemical odors that are attractive to these beetles and even if a beetle were to fly to and attack a healthy tree, it would be drowned by the sap flow prior to releasing the aggregation pheromone. The elm bark beetle is also a key vector of Dutch elm disease, a fungal disease that has killed many of the American elm trees in the United States.

Dying trees due to beetle attack.

 

Bark beetles only attack trees with bark and that have enough moisture content to sustain their survival. Once male and female beetles reach a susceptible tree, they bore into the bark and form an elongated brood gallery between the inner layer of the bark and the sapwood (outer surface of tree just under the bark).  Depending on the species, this gallery may be occupied by an adult male or female or, in some species; the male may have a harem of 2 to 4 females.  After mating the female(s) deposits her eggs on both sides and at short even intervals along the elongated brood gallery or chamber.  Once the larvae hatch, they bore out from the brood gallery at a more or less right angle remaining between the bark and sapwood.  Each species makes characteristic engraving patterns in this area.  The width of the larval galleries increases in as the larvae grow and continue to feed.  These tunnels are frequently packed with their frass.  Immediately prior to pupation the larvae form pupation chambers at the end of their tunnels. Once the adults emerge from the pupae, they eat their way to the outside through the bark, leaving small circular emergence holes. In heavy infestation it almost looks as though someone shot the tree with buckshot; hence another common name-the shot hole borers.

 

                                                                                                   

 

 A gallery or tunneling system typical of bark beetle attack. Yellow arrow indicate brood gallery.  Orange arrow indicates larval tunnel.  Image courtesy of James Solomon, USDA Forest Service.

 

Because these beetles cannot survive in seasoned wood, or even in trees that have been cut for a year or more, they are not a structural pest.  However the pest control operator should be aware of their existence as the building of expensive-trendy log cabins is coming very popular, especially in mountainous areas.  It is very unlikely that these beetles would attack such an existing structure but built-in beetle infestations may cause some nuisance problems.

 

As with the bark beetles, ambrosia beetles in this family typically do not reinfest but, unlike the bark beetles, they bore into and form galleries that extend several inches deep into weakened trees.  These tunnels may be used for several generations provided sufficient moisture is present.  Ambrosia beetles do not feed on wood but feed on a fungus that grows on the walls of their tunnels.  These beetles are often referred to as wood stainers as the tunnel walls take on a black or brown color due to the fungi.

 

These beetles do not reinfest and cannot survive in seasoned wood and therefore are not a structural pest.  However, because their galleries do extend deeply into trees, it is not uncommon to find seasoned wood or wood products that contain damage due to previous infestations.  In this case all damage was done prior to the production of the lumber or manufacturing of the product.  Damage due to these beetles can be readily recognized by the appearance of small round holes (approximately 1.5 cm in diameter) that are stained black or brown around their perimeter.

 

                                               Due to the Recent Droughts, the Importance of These Pests have Increased Dramatically.

 

Oregon Infestations. In recent years, The Dalles area of Central Oregon has experienced below average precipitation, which has helped foster a dramatic bark beetle increase in mixed forest stands with ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir and grand fir. Bark beetles have always been a major problem in pine and fir, but aerial detection surveys were showing an almost eight-fold epidemic increase in tree death in the area along the eastern slopes of the Cascade Mountains and in associated watersheds. When these pests proliferate to that extent, it’s often an indication of poor forest health conditions due to drought and overstocked forest stands.
 
To remedy the situation requires diligent forest management to thin and open up dense stands of trees to prevent the larger scale spread of bark beetles and other potential pests and diseases. Research plots in Oregon have shown that thinning ponderosa pine so there is wide spacing can help protect stands from bark beetles for several decades. Remaining trees then have more water, nutrients and sunlight available to them, and their growth and vigor improves, making them more resistant to future beetle attacks and drought. These forest management practices, which include the removal of dead and dying trees, also help prevent the buildup of dry, woody fuels that are ripe for catastrophic wildfires which kill live trees and do considerable resource damage to soils and streamside or watershed areas.

 

Southern California Infestations. Bark beetles are naturally occurring species in the Southern California forests. Under normal conditions they occur at low population levels, going unnoticed by humans. In recent years conditions have become favorable for bark beetle population growth, which ultimately led to the current outbreak. Several factors have led to this favorable beetle environment. First, decades of fire suppression has resulted in over-crowded forests. The dense stands of mature trees compete for limited nutrients and water, reducing the health of the stands. Second, long term exposure to air pollution, particularly ozone, has reduced the health of conifers in the forest. Excessive ozone exposure causes premature loss of pine needles, reducing the trees ability to produce food and tissues. Third, Southern California experienced four continuous years of drought (1999-2002). This long term water stress further reduced the health of the conifers. The combination of these factors has resulted in a forest full of unhealthy vulnerable trees.

 

Dead trees due to the feeding of these beetles greatly increase the possibility of fire. The risk of fire is based on a number of factors including fuel loadings (the type and density of the fuels), fuel moisture (the moisture content of the fuels, primarily vegetation), and the fire weather outlook (air temperature, relative humidity, precipitation, wind conditions). The combination of these factors is used to determine the fire danger, which includes components for energy release (estimate of potential energy released in the active portion of the fire) and fire behavior (potential for surface fire, crown fire, or plume-dominated fire). During the summer and early fall of 2003 the risk of fire based upon all of the above factors was determined to be extremely high for the wild lands of Southern California with a high potential for large fires that would burn large tracts of land. 

The bark beetle killed trees reduce the overall fuel moisture in areas where large numbers of dead trees stand. The dead, dry trees burn faster and hotter than living trees within any given stand. Standing dead trees will burn to a crown fire. Whether or not the crown fire of a dead tree will be transferred to the surrounding living trees depends on the proximity of the live trees to the dead trees and the other conditions at the time of the fire. 

The Old Fire in the San Bernardino National Forest was initiated by arson in two locations, Old Waterman Canyon and near the community of Crestline. The conditions were prime for the firestorm that consumed over 91,000 acres of land, 993 homes, and 10 commercial properties. The majority of the acreage consumed was chaparral. The areas of forest that burned had a high proportion of standing dead vegetation. Below are maps showing the type of fuels present in the San Bernardino National Forest and the extent of the Old Fire. Although the scales are different, one can see that the fire consumed more chaparral than forest. The efforts of the firefighters and the change in weather conditions allowed the containment of the fire before more acreage was lost.

Northern Arizona. Several years of drought and high tree densities combined to allow pine bark beetle populations to reach outbreak levels during 2002 - 2004, killing millions of pinion and ponderosa pine trees in Arizona and New Mexico. Large areas of mortality, especially around cities of Santa Fe and Flagstaff generated much public concern as many trees died. The areas most affected are those where trees were at the lower end of their elevational range. Data from aerial surveys recorded 2.1 million acres of piñon-juniper woodland and 1.3 million acres of ponderosa pine affected in Arizona and New Mexico during the 2002 - 2004.

These insects are native to the piñon-juniper woodlands and ponderosa pine forests of the Southwest, normally attacking only a small number of diseased or weakened trees. A healthy tree is typically able to defend against a bark beetle attack by pushing the beetles out with sap. The drought has left many trees with little ability to defend against bark beetle attacks. Additionally, the high tree densities of southwestern forests have contributed to weaker trees due to competition for water and resources. The last major outbreak of these bark beetles in the southwest occurred during the 1950’s drought.

The amount of piñon and ponderosa mortality in 2004 was substantially less than in 2003, a result of the combination of slightly greater precipitation and the fact that many of the trees in the most susceptible areas have already been killed. The amount of new mortality in ponderosa pine and piñon-juniper woodlands further decreased in 2005.
 

 

                                                                                          FAMILY-LYCIDAE-NET WINGED BEETLES.

 

This is a fairly large family (2,300 species worldwide) of larger beetles (to 0.7 inches) that are brightly colored, soft bodied and have a net-like arrangement of raised areas on the elytra.  Their bright color is reported to be a warning coloration advertising the fact that these are distasteful insects.  The adults are frequently found on flowers and little is known about their biology.  In many species the elytra is broader at the back than the front.

 

                                                                                                

 

                                                                   A typical net winged beetle.  Image courtesy of L. Shyamal

 

 

 

                                                                                              FAMILY-CANTHARIDE-SOLDIER BEETLES

 

This is a small family of medium to large sized insects.  The soldier beetles are relatively soft-bodied, straight-sided beetles, related to the Lampyridae or firefly family, but being unable to produce light. They are cosmopolitan in distribution. One common British species is bright red, reminding people of the red coats of soldiers, hence the common name. A secondary common name is leatherwing, obtained from the texture of the wing covers.

Some species of soldier beetles are highly desired by gardeners as  biological control agents of a number of pest insects. The larvae tend to be dark brown or gray, slender and wormlike with a rippled appearance due to pronounced segmentation. They consume grasshopper eggs, aphids, caterpillars and other soft bodied insects’. The adults are especially important predators of aphids. They supplement their diet with nectar and pollen and can be minor pollinators.

                                                                      

 

 Adult soldier beetles.  Images courtesy of Fir0002,flagstaffotos.com.au

 

 

                                                                                                                   FAMILY-LAMPYRIDAE-FIREFLIES

 

This is a relatively small family of relatively large beetles (1/3 to 1 inch in length).  The heads of these soft-bodied beetles are not visible when viewed from a dorsal angle.  Being a small family, individual species are similar in appearance. Fireflies tend to be brown and soft bodied, often with the elytra more leathery than in other beetles. Though the females of some species are similar in appearance to males, larviform females are found in many firefly species. These females can often be distinguished from the larvae only because they have compound eyes. There are 2,000 species of firefly found in temperate and tropical environments. Many are in marshes or in wet, wooded areas where their larvae have abundant sources of food. These larvae emit light and are often called "glowworms", particularly in Eurasia. In the Americas, "glow worm" also refers to the related Phengodidae.

 

                                                                                            A firefly in the process of calling a mate.  Image courtesy of Bruce Marlin.

The most commonly known fireflies are nocturnal, though there are numerous species that are diurnal. Most diurnal species are non-luminescent, though some species that remain in shadowy areas can produce light. The light-producing species are rather common in many areas of the world and in the southern and eastern United States. The light emitted by these insects is unique in that 100% of the energy produced is in the form of light.  In a light bulb, only about 10% of the energy produced is light while the rest is heat.  The light is emitted from a gland located on the underside of the abdomen and is produced by the oxidation of luciferin when in the presence of an enzyme called luciferase.  The gland is richly supplied with tracheal breathing tubes and the beetle has the ability to supply oxygen to the gland when it needs to produce light.

                                                                                    Fireflies glowing at night.  Image courtesy of Quit007 

A few days after mating, a female lays her fertilized eggs on or just below the surface of the ground. The eggs hatch 3-4 weeks later and the larvae feed until the end of the summer. The larvae are commonly called glowworms, not to be confused with the distinct beetle family Phengodidae or fly genus Arachnocampa (glow-worm of SE Asia). Fireflies overwinter during the larval stage, some species for several years. Some do this by burrowing underground, while others find places on or under the bark of trees. They emerge in the spring. After several weeks of feeding, they pupate for 1 to 2.5 weeks and emerge as adults. The larvae of most species are specialized predators and feed on other larvae, terrestrial snails, and slugs. Some are so specialized that they have grooved mandibles which deliver digestive fluids directly to their prey. Adult diet varies. Some are predatory, while others feed on plant pollen or nectar. Most fireflies are quite distasteful and sometimes poisonous to vertebrate predators. This is due at least in part to a group of steroids which are similar to those found in some poisonous toads

Light production in fireflies is due to a type of chemical reaction called bioluminescence. This process occurs in specialized light-emitting organs, usually on a firefly's lower abdomen. The enzyme luciferase acts on luciferin, in the presence of magnesium ions, ATP (adenosene triphosphate), and oxygen to produce light. 

All fireflies glow as larvae. Bioluminescence serves a different function in lampyrid larvae than it does in adults. It appears to be a warning signal to predators, since many firefly larvae contain chemicals that are distasteful or toxic. It is thought that light in adult beetles was originally used for similar warning purposes, but evolved for use in attracting a mate. Now fireflies are a classic example of an organism that uses bioluminescence for sexual selection. They have evolved a variety of ways to communicate with mates in courtships.

In a few species, large numbers of males will gather in one bush and flash in unison.  This draws both sexes for mating.  This phenomenon has also been observed is some of the "eyed" click beetles and is similar to the behavior of some of the long-horned grasshoppers or cicadas that sing in unison to draw mates.  This cooperative behavior intensifies the signal, which can be carried over longer distances than the signal of individuals.  There is one species of predatory firefly that mimics the blinking pattern of a smaller species.  In this case the males of the smaller species that respond are consumed rather than finding a mate.

 

              

                                                                                             FAMILY-TROGOSITIDAE-BARK GNAWING BEETLES

This is a very small family with a few representatives.  They are recognized primarily by their body shape, which is elongate, parallel-sided with a “waist” between the pro and mesothorax.  Most are black but there are a few blue and green metallic colored species.  Most species are found under loose bark of trees and are not of any concern. 

Cadelle Beetle Tenebriodes mauritanicius. This is an occasional stored grain and warehouse pest.  Cadelles are primary feeders on a variety of grains, nuts, flour, and meal. They produce irregular holes in undamaged kernels and prefer the seed germ but will also eat endosperm. This beetle is commonly found in wooden bins. Both larvae and adults will bore into wood surfaces during their development cycle.

Cadelles, the largest of the major stored grain beetles, are shiny dark to red brown and about 0.6 inch long. Their underside, antennae, and legs are red-brown. There is a distinct narrowing of the body between the prothorax and wing covers which gives the appearance of a distinct "waist." The outer corners of the prothorax project forward toward the head. Cadelle larvae, the worm-like immature stages, have creamy white elongated bodies with distinct black heads. There are two dark plates on the upper part of the segment just behind the head. A distinct plate with two horny points is present on the rear of the larvae. Full grown larvae are about 0.6 to one inch long.

Females may live more than a year and lay an average of 1,000 eggs each. The eggs are laid in batches of 10 to 60 in the grain or food materials. Both larvae and adults attack grain and typically go from kernel to kernel, feeding on the germ. There are usually four larval stages and one or two generations of the insect per year in temperate regions. Larval development may be as short as eight weeks under optimum conditions. The larvae often migrate from the source of the infestation to pupate in a hole within wood or other materials. Eggs and pupae are easily killed at 0 F; however, larvae and adults can survive at 15 to 20 F for several weeks.

Prevention is always the most economic and efficient method of controlling these pests. Once they are distributed within the grain mass, fumigation is the best method of relieving the problem.                                

 

An adult cadelle beetle, Tenebriodes mauritanicius...  Image courtesy of Clemson University, USDA.

 

 

                                                                                                       FAMILY-HISTERIDAE-HISTER BEETLE

The hister beetles are easily identified by their shiny elytra which are typically shiny black or metallic green. The two main shapes for this family are oval and flat. The elytra is shorter than the thorax with typically two of the seven tergites exposed.  Hister beetles have specialized heads that can retract into their prothorax and two elbowed antennae with clubbed ends. The body form of these beetles is typically rounded or ovoid, but some are flat and rectangular. Typical coloration patterns include black, metallic green, and black with red markings. They are most active at night and they will play dead if they feel threatened.

 Histeridae has two common names, the “Clown” beetle and the “Hister” beetle. There have been several theories explaining the origin of these common names. One theory for the “Hister” nickname comes from the work of Juvenal, a Roman poet. Juvenal used the word “hister” to mean a dirty, lowly being. Another theory for the origin of this beetle's name stems from the fact that in Latin, “hister” means actor.  Many people believe the name is associated with the hister beetles’ ability to imitate death when they are disturbed. Still, some believe this family of beetles was named for its physical characteristics. The Clown beetle has flattened legs, which can be compared to a clown’s flat shoes or loose-fitting pants.

                                                                                           Adult Hister Beetles.  Left Image Courtesy of Univar Inc.

 

As with other insects that are associated with dead bodies hister beetles are useful in Forensic Entomology, most importantly determining when a murder victim was killed.  Flesh eating insects arrive at a dead body within a few hours after death. For example certain species of the hister beetles follow shortly behind and prey on the maggots and other arthropods that are first present. Insects can also help determine the season in which the body died. The Hister beetle is more prevalent in spring and summer. Since the family is very diverse, different species can be found on a body at different times because of their various feeding habits.  For example, Hister quadrinotatus and Hister sedakovi arrive to feed when the carrion is bloat to dry (full of maggots to no maggots). In contrast, Saprinus pennsylvanicus arrive at the body first, when it is fresh.

 

                                                                                        FAMILY-NITIDULIDAE-SAP BEETLES

 

This is a small family of small to minute (0.15 to 0.3 in.).  Most are flattened with capitate antennae and have short elytra leaving 2 to 3 abdominal segment visible when viewed from a dorsal angle (Figure 167).  As the name implies most feed in rotting fruit, or sap oozing from trees.  Normally they are of little concern but occasionally become a problem infesting grapes that are dried in the field in the raisin industry.

 

                                                                                

 

A Sap Beetle.  Image Courtesy of ARS.

 

Small Hive Beetle-Aethina tumida. This is a beekeeping pest that is endemic to sub-Saharan Africa, the small hive beetle, Aethina tumida was first discovered in the United States in 1996 and has now spread to many other U.S. states including, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Minnesota, Missouri, York and Virginia. The movement of migratory beekeepers from Florida may have transported the beetle to other states. Recent findings also indicate transport of the beetles in packages.

                                                                                      

                                                                                                     Small Hive Beetle. Image Courtesy James D. Ellis.

The small hive beetle can be a destructive pest of honey bee colonies, causing damage to comb, stored honey and pollen. If a beetle infestation is sufficiently heavy, they may cause bees to abandon their hive. Its absence can also be a marker in the diagnosis of Colony Collapse Disorder for honey-bees. The beetles can also be a pest of stored combs, and honey (in the comb) awaiting extraction. Beetle larvae may tunnel through combs of honey, feeding and defecating, causing discoloration and fermentation of the honey.

Aethina tumida was previously known only from the sub-Saharan regions of Africa where it has been considered a minor pest of bees. The life cycle information is known primarily from studies in South Africa.

The small hive beetle is a member of the family of scavengers or sap beetles. The adult beetle is dark brown to black and about one-half centimeter in length. The adults may live up to 6 months and can be observed almost anywhere in a hive, although they are most often found on the rear portion of the bottom board of a hive. Female beetles lay irregular masses of eggs in cracks or crevices in a hive. The eggs hatch in 2–3 days into white-colored larvae that will grow to 10–11 mm in length. Larvae feed on pollen and honey, damaging combs, and require about 10–16 days to mature. Larvae that are ready to pupate leave the hive and burrow into soil near the hive. The pupation period may last approximately 3–4 weeks. Newly emerged adults seek out hives and females generally mate and begin egg laying about a week after emergence. Hive beetles may have 4–5 generations a year during the warmer seasons.

The primary damage to colonies and stored honey caused by the small hive beetle is through the feeding activity of the larvae. Hives and stored equipment with heavy infestations of beetles have been described as a mess. A summary taken from various reports of damage caused by these beetles is listed below:

Larvae tunnel through comb with stored honey or pollen, damaging or destroying cappings and comb. Larvae defecate in honey and the honey becomes discolored from the feces. Activity of the larvae causes fermentation and frothiness in the honey; the honey develops a characteristic odor of decaying oranges. Damage and fermentation cause honey to run out of combs, creating a mess in hives or extracting rooms. Heavy infestations cause bees to abscond; some beekeepers have reported the rapid collapse of even strong colonies.

The small hive beetle is considered a secondary pest in South Africa, and, as such, has not been the subject of major control efforts. The beetle is most often found in weak or failing hives and rarely affects strong hives. However, differences in the housecleaning traits of the bees found in South Africa and the U.S. may mean very different responses to the beetles. Some early reports from Florida and South Carolina suggest the beetles may be more damaging there than in Africa. PDB (paradichlorobenzene) has been used for protecting empty stored combs. Coumaphos bee strips (Bayer Corporation) have been approved for use in hives for the control of small hive beetles in some states under an emergency registration.

The most effective control against small hive beetle is maintaining colony strength. Coupled with minimizing empty frames of comb, this will all but eliminate the chances of colony failure.

There are also several traps currently on the market. The more effective ones are the Hood Trap, the Freeman Beetle Trap and the West trap. All these traps use non-toxic oil to suffocate the beetles. This allows beekeepers to avoid having toxic chemicals in their beehives.

 

 

FAMILIES-HYDROPHILIDAE-WATER SCAVENGER BEETLES

DYTISCIDAE-PREDACEOUS DIVING BEETLES

GYRINIDAE-WHIRLYGIG BEETLES

 

These are the 3 families of beetles that are commonly found in fresh water stream, ponds and lakes.  The key word here is “commonly” as there are a dozen or more families of aquatic beetles, but the remaining families are somewhat rare, obscure and almost never collected by anyone except the experts.  These 3 families can be easily distinguished from the other insects discussed in this CD by shape alone.  They can best be described (at least by me) as an elongated, oval flattened appearance, seemingly streamline and well suited for swimming and diving.  Their legs are lined with rows of elongate hair to allow them to easily maneuver through the water.  The next question would be how they can be separated from each other. 

 

                                                                                       

 

                                             A Water Scavenger Beetle’s Leg Fringed with Hairs.

 

The Hydrophilidae and Dysticidae are quite similar in appearance.  However, the Hydrophilidae possess short clubbed antennae while the Dytiscidae has a filiform antennae.  This characteristic can be confusing if not checked carefully, because the maxillary palps of the Hydrophilidae is elongated and appears as a filiform antennae. An additional reliable characteristic is that the Hydrophilidae has a keel-shaped spine located between the legs. These adult beetles utilized this spine to scrape algae off rocks, their main diet.  Predaceous diving

        beetle adults and larvae and water scavenger beetle larvae are predatory.

 

 

A water scavenger beetle (Hydrophilidae) with elongated maxillary palps and typical shape.

 

 

 

 

Water scavenger beetle illustrating spine or keel on underside of the body located between bases of legs.

 

 

A dytiscid beetle with well-developed filiform antennae.

 

Some species of adult Dytiscidae, particular of the genus Cybister are eaten roasted, salted and served in tacos. In Japan. Thailand and other Asian countries they are also eaten by humans. In the Guangdong Province of China, several species of Dytiscids and probably also the well-known Great Diving Beetle Dytiscus marginalis are bred for human consumption, though as they are cumbersome to raise due to the carnivorous habit and have a fairly bland (though apparently not offensive) taste and little meat. Dytiscidae are reportedly also eaten in Taiwan, Thailand and on New Guinea.

 

The Gyrinidae are easily distinguished from the other two families by the presence of 2 pair of compound eyes.  This is an adaptation to their mode of life.  Whirligig beetles are frequently found on the top of the water preying on a variety of other insects.  It is believed that one pair of eyes are directed downward into the water while the upper pair allows them to see upward. The term whirligig refers to the activity of adult beetle gyrating (usually in mass or clusters) on top of the water.  The term itself comes from an old English term for a type of top.

 

 

Typical Shape of a Whirlygig Beetle.  Figure Courtesy of Texas A and M Entomology.

 

 

 

FAMILY-CURCULIONIDAE-WEEVILS

 

In most cases weevils are easy to recognize by the presence of a snout-like projection of the head.  In some cases the snout is not as well developed.  An additional identifying characteristic is the elbowed antennae (arrow) and antennal scrobes.  An elbowed antennae consists of the first segment (the segment attached to the head) is elongate and in some cases is as long as the remaining segments combined.  Antennal scrobes are open channels located on both sides and situated along the length of the snout.  When feeding the first segment of the antenna fits into these channels.  The typical life cycle of a weevil consists of the adult eating a hole into some part of the plant (stem, leaves, fruiting body) and then depositing an egg in the hole.  The larvae of almost all weevils are internal borers and are typically C-shaped, legless with a well-developed head capsule. Most weevil species are quire host specific, feeding on one or a just a few species of plants.

                               

 

A weevil with elongated snout and elbowed antennae.  Arrow indicate elongated first antennal segment.

 

Boll Weevil- Anthonomus grandis.  This is considered one of, if not the most, important agricultural pests in the United States.  It is estimated that up to one-third of all agricultural insecticides used in the US are used on this beetle.  Its importance comes from the fact that the larvae feed inside the bolls of cotton, which is a very important crop.  The cotton boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis grandis, is the most important pest of cotton in much of America’s Cotton Belt. Its importance is due not only to the considerable damage it does but also to its disruption of management programs that target other pests. High numbers of boll weevils can cause you to apply insecticide repeatedly during the growing season because the boll weevil goes through several overlapping generations during every crop season, reproduces quickly, moves often and can be controlled with insecticides only during its adult stage. Applying insecticides can reduce populations of organisms that regulate the populations of other cotton pests, such as aphids, plant bugs and the bollworm complex. The presence of significant boll weevil populations dictates, to some extent, the management of other pests.

 

                                                                     

 

                                                                                     Adult Boll Weevil.  Image Courtesy USDA-ARS.

 

The boll weevil is not native to the United States. It originated in Mexico and Central America where it fed on native tree cottons. It probably adapted to domesticated cottons in Central America in pre-Columbian times. It was first detected in the United States in Texas, about 1892. The boll weevil spread across the Cotton Belt at an average rate of about 60 miles a year and made it to the Carolinas by 1922. It was first detected in Missouri about 1913.

Today, you can find the boll weevil in the mid-South cotton-production region, which is Arkansas, Louisiana, Missouri, Mississippi and Tennessee, and in Texas, New Mexico and parts of Alabama. States successfully eradicating the boll weevil are North Carolina, South Carolina, California, Florida, Georgia and parts of Alabama. Another subspecies of the boll weevil is found in Arizona, but it feeds predominantly on a wild relative of cotton.

 

Eggs are deposited in cotton flower buds (squares) and small bolls.  Females produce as many as 200 eggs during their life span.  After eating a small hole in a square or boll and depositing her eggs she seals the oviposition hole with frass leaving a characteristic brown, raised area at the site.  As a result the bracts of infested squares usually yellow flare and drop from the plant. If a boll does not drop the hatching larvae feed inside the fruiting body for 7 to 14 days, depending primarily on prevailing temperatures.  Pupation occurs inside the developed bolls. Toward the end of summer, as cotton plants mature and days grow shorter, most emerging adults enter a pre-diapause state. Diapause is a resting state comparable to hibernation that adult boll weevils enter to survive winter. It is a condition of arrested development where body functions slow down.  Pre-diapause boll weevils typically don’t mate but feed to build up fat reserves for the winter. During this phase, boll weevils travel great distances. Individual insects fly more than 30 miles in search of food or wintering habitat. Diapausing boll weevils overwinter in leaf litter in wooded areas near cotton fields. However, a few overwinter in fence rows, grass banks and other sites. Survival is highest in hardwood litter sites. The boll weevils remain in these overwintering sites until triggered out of diapauses by warming temperatures, lengthening days and possibly moisture.

 

Abundance from year to year varies dramatically because of fluctuations in the severity of winters. Spring-emerging boll weevils search for the nearest cotton field and search for squares there. Those emerging before squares are available may feed on the terminal buds of cotton plants or on the pollen of flowering plants. The boll weevil, however, must have cotton pollen available to successfully mate. Once males feed on squares, they release an oviposition pheromone in their frass which is attractive to both females and males. As a result females are attracted to both oviposition food sources as well. Females and males are attracted food and possible mates. Once females respond to

the pheromone, the insects mate, and the annual cycle starts again. The insects may produce several generations per year.

 

Over the course of a year, many factors contribute to boll weevil mortality. These factors include predation, parasitism, disease, weather and others. Predation is a relatively minor component in the boll weevil population compared with other insect pests. Because most of the life cycle is spent inside the square, weevils tend to be safe from predators. Parasites also have little effect on boll weevil populations. Several native parasitic wasps do attack weevil larvae but rarely in numbers high enough to reduce populations. An exotic parasitic wasp, Catolaccus grandis, is effective but typcially cannot survive the colder winters of many areas. It may be useful in release programs, though. Disease organisms do kill some boll weevils, but again, normally not at levels that will control infestations. Suicidal emergence can be a significant factor. In some years, many boll weevils come out of diapauses long before cotton squares are available. Because most (but not all) emerging weevils will live for only about two weeks without cotton pollen, most of these early emerging individuals die without reproducing.

 

 Weather is probably the most important cause of boll weevil death in much of the Cotton Belt. Because the boll weevil is a tropical insect it is not well-adapted to the climate of much of the United States.  Because overwintering boll weevils are insulated by leaf litter, air temperatures usually have to drop lower than lethal temperatures. Snow or ice cover also insulates and protect boll weevils from lethal temperatures. In colder areas less than 10 percent of the weevils that enter wintering habitat survive to spring. A series of severe winters in the late 1970s virtually eradicated the weevil in Missouri and other areas; populations did not recover until the late 1980s. High heat, drought and cultivation may kill some larvae during the growing season. The impact of these factors has not been measured in the mid-South growing region.

 

Most damage to cotton by the boll weevil is caused by eggs deposition and larvae feeding. In heavy infestations, nearly every square receives an egg as soon as it is large enough to support the development of a larva (when squares are roughly the size of a pencil eraser); under these conditions, virtually no fruit may be set. The potential for damage is greater because of the boll weevil’s short generation time. Two or more generations may occur during viable fruit set. Under these condition 50% or more of the crop can be destroyed. Squares and small bolls fed on by adult boll weevils typically drop from the plant. Larger bolls may not drop but may be more susceptible to invasion by boll-rot organisms. Adults feed on terminals of seedling cotton before squares are available. In rare instances, this feeding causes enough injury to reduce stand or retard plant growth.

 

Winter is probably the most effective killer of boll weevils each year in Missouri and other colder areas. Unfortunately, the weather or wintering habitats are not controllable by humans. However, boll weevil populations can be managed through a combination of cultural and chemical control strategies. An important tool for boll weevil management is the pheromone trap. This trap uses a synthetic produced male boll weevils pheromone to attract weevils of both sexes. Traps are used to monitor weevil activity and \population levels in a cotton field. Cultivation destroys some of the larvae in fallen squares, but other practices are more useful. Managing a crop for early planting establishes much of the fruit before boll weevil numbers rise, and it reduces the time the crop is vulnerable to the insect. Early planting (as soil temperatures allow), early maturing varieties, fertility management to prevent lush, late-season growth, using growth regulators such as Pix (mepiquat chloride) and other earliness practices help reduce boll weevil impact. In some years, a substantial number of weevils can develop in a field after harvest, particularly if harvest was early and regrowth occurs. Destroy crop residues as soon as possible after harvest to reduce overwintering populations. Mowing with a flail or rotary mower is preferable to disking or otherwise trying to bury the residue. To be effective, destruction of residue on an area-wide basis is needed. If only a few growers leave residue standing through the fall, enough boll weevils can be produced to infest neighboring growers’ acreage the following spring.

 

Three types of insecticide applications can be used during the cotton-growing season to reduce boll weevil populations. The first two types reduce populations during the growing season; the third reduces populations going into wintering habitat. The first kind of boll weevil insecticide treatment frequently is called a “pin-head square” application. Time the application to coincide with the appearance of the first squares, when they are about the size of a kitchen match head. A well-timed pin-head square application can greatly reduce the number of boll need for more insecticide treatments later in the season. Pin-head applications are, therefore, the most important chemical “tools” available for boll weevil management. Base your decision to make a pin-head application on pheromone-trap captures. Place pheromone traps when plants emerge at a rate of one trap per 10 acres to 20 acres. You should treat your crop if, during a two-week period prior to the appearance of the first square, you capture one weevil to two weevils in each trap each week. The second type of boll weevil insecticide application is an “in-season,” threshold-based treatment. These are directed at populations that have exceeded the economic threshold and that will cause economic loss if left unchecked. Missouri’s threshold is 10 percent to 15 percent squares with boll weevil punctures. Examine a minimum of 100 randomly selected squares before you decide whether to treat. Begin scouting when the first squares are one-third grown (about the size of a pencil eraser), and continue weekly until cutout (when square production drops off). You may need to repeat in-season treatments at four-day to five-day intervals until the population is reduced. Late in the season (during and after cutout), raise the threshold to reflect the increasing scarcity of squares. At this time the threshold should be between 20 percent to 30 percent punctured squares, and you should examine small bolls for signs of adult feeding and egg laying. The third type of insecticide treatment option to use against boll weevils is the “diapause-control” spray. Its goal is to reduce the number of boll weevils entering wintering habitat. If you want the diapauses control treatment to be effective, make it part of an area-wide program. Diapause-control sprays are applied to cotton fields after the crop is made but before boll weevils move to wintering habitat (in Missouri this would be about the beginning of September). You may spray several times prior to harvest at 10-day to 14-day intervals. Discontinue when the crop residue is destroyed or killing frost occurs. The need for diapause treatments is based on damage rates in the field and pheromone trap captures. 

 

The boll weevil has had such a tremendous influence and development of the South it natural follow that many songs have been written about their tiny pest.  Below are the lyrics of one.

 

1. Oh, de boll weevil am a little black bug, Come from Mexico, dey say, Come all de way to Texas, Jus' a-lookin' foh a place to stay, Jus' a-lookin' foh a home, Jus' a-lookin' foh a home. 2. De first time I seen de boll weevil, He was a-settin' on de square. De next time I seen de boll weevil, He had all of his family dere. Jus' a lookin' foh a home, Jus' a-lookia' foh a home. 3. De farmer say to de weevil: "What make yo' head so red?" De weevil say to de farmer, "It's a wondah I ain't dead, A-lookin' foh a home, Jus' a-Iookin' foh a home." 4. De farmer take de boll weevil, An' he put him in de hot san'. De weevil say: "Dis is mighty hot, But I'll stan' it like a man, Dis'll be my home, It'll be my home." 5. De farmer take de boll weevil, An' he put him in a lump of ice; De boll weevil say to de farmer: "Dis is mighty cool and nice, It'll be my home, Dis'll be my home," 6. De farmer take de boII weevil, An' he put him in de fire. De bolI weevil say to de farmer: "Here I are, here I are, Dis'll be my home, Dis'll be my home."

7. De boll weevil say to de farmer: "You better leave me alone; I done eat all yo' cotton, Now I'm goin' to start on yo' corn, I'll have a home, I'll have a home." 8. De merchant got half de cotton, De boll weevil got de res'. Didn't leave de farmer's wife But one old cotton dress, An' it's full of holes, It's full of holes. 9. De farmer say to de merchant: "We's in an awful fix; De boll weevil et all de cotton up An' lef' us only sticks, We's got no home, We's got no home." 10. De farmer say to de merchant: "We ain't made but only one bale, And befoh we'll give yo' dat one We'll fight and go to jail, We'll have a home, We'll have a home." 11. De cap'n say to de missus: "What d' you t'ink o' dat? De boll weevil done make a nes' In my bes' Sunday hat, Goin' to have a home, Goin' to have a home." 12. An' if anybody should ax you Who it was dat make dis song, Jus' tell 'em 'twas a big buck niggah Wid a paih o' blue duckin's on, Ain' got no home, Ain' got no home.

 

 

The Rice Weevil and Granary Weevils. The granary and rice weevil species are very similar in appearance and exhibit similar biologies. The adult weevils are 1/8th inch long and have slender, hard-shelled bodies that appear pitted or scarred with tiny holes. They are brown to reddish brown in color. The rice weevil has four faint yellowish spots on the back of the abdomen. The granary weevil is uniformly colored with no spots.

Rice weevil with two spot on elytra.  Image courtesy of http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:olei

These weevils are pests of stored grain and seeds. They develop inside whole grain kernels as small, white, wrinkled, grub-like larvae. Adult rice weevils survive for up to 2 years. Females lay 2-6 eggs per day and up to 300 eggs over their lifetime. The female uses strong mandibles to chew a hole into a grain kernel after which she deposits a single egg within the hole and seals the hole with secretions from her ovipositor. The larva develops within the grain, hollowing it out while feeding. It then pupates within the grain kernel and emerges 2–4 days after eclosion. There is generally no external evidence that the larvae have been eating and growing inside the seed until after about one month when the adult weevil chews through the seed coat and emerges. Presence of rice or granary weevils inside the home usually indicates there is infested whole grain or seeds. This may be food seeds or beans in the cupboards, popcorn, saved garden seeds, dried seed decorations, decorative Indian corn, "bean bags," old grain-based mouse bait, or other stored seeds.

Rice and granary weevils are harmless to people, houses, furniture, clothing and pets. They cannot bite or sting and they do not carry diseases. They will not feed on furniture, the house structure or other items. The harm they do is destruction of the seeds they infest and the annoyance of being in the wrong place.

Control requires locating and eliminating the infested whole grain. Small quantities of grain can be "saved" by controlling the weevils with heat or cold. Heating grain to 140 degrees F for 15 minutes or freezing at O degrees F for 3 days will kill all stages of weevils in the grain. Larger quantities may require disposal or professional fumigation.

Cupboards or shelves holding infested items should be emptied and thoroughly vacuum cleaned, paying special attention to cracks and corners. A light spray of household insecticide can be applied to cracks of empty shelves but spraying without locating and eliminating the infestation will not eradicate the problem

Males produce an aggregation pheromone ((4S,5R)-5-Hydroxy-4-methylheptan-3-one) to which males and females are drawn . A synthetic version is available which attracts rice weevils, maize weevils and grain weevils. These can be used to detect infestations. Females produce a pheromone which attracts only males .

These are major stored grain pests with their damage attribution to some of the human starvation in the world.

They are more of a problem in Africa as in some parts it’s considered filthy to eat grain infested with insects.  In much of India where insect infested grain is commonly eaten, famine is less of a problem.  Actually the additional protein (insects) enhances the nutritional value of the grain and is thought to have solved some of the malnutrition problems.

 

White Fringed Weevils.  Naupactus (also known as the white-fringed weevil or white-fringed beetle) is a genus with many species which are considered pests, both as larvae and as adults. The genus is native to South America, although several species were inadvertently introduced to North America and have become widespread in the southern United States. At least one species has also been found in New Zealand.

Most Naupactus species reproduce by parthenogenesis. Adults are flightless with rudimentary underwings. Female (males unknown) are light to dark gray or brown with a lighter band along the outer margins of the wing covers, and two paler longitudinal lines on each side of the thorax and head, one above and one below the eye. Adult length is approximately 12 mm.  They have rudimentary underwings and inner margins of outer wings fused together.  The larvae are cream colored, legless with a well developed head capsule.  They are slightly C-shaped.

 

Adult  of White-Fringed Beetle.  Image courtesy http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Kaldari.

 

Adult beetles (univoltine = one generation per year) emerge from the soil from May to October and feed on foliage. Oviposition (parthenogenetic reproduction) occurs 5 to 25 days after emergence. Egg masses (11 to 14 eggs) are laid on plant stems, roots, soil, and where they contact the soil onto hay, firewood, lumber, and farm tools and machinery. Eggs hatch 11 to 100+ days after oviposition (summer eggs average 17 days; winter eggs average 100 days). Larvae feed on roots, tubers, and underground stems as well as dead plant material and complete their development in the soil. Whitefringed beetles overwinter as larvae.

Pupation occurs from late April to late July in cells constructed by the larvae; however, some larvae spend a second year feeding on plants in the soil before they pupate. Most pupal cells are 5 to 15 cm below the soil surface; however, cells have been found at a depth of 36 cm. In the summer months, the pupal stage lasts ca. 13 days; in cooler months it is longer.

Whitefringed beetles have been associated with over 385 plant species. The most common hosts are cotton, peanuts, okra, velvet beans, soybeans, cowpeas, sweet potatoes, beans, and peas. Adults seem to prefer plants with large, broad, smooth leaves; larvae feed on agricultural plant roots, newly germinated acorns and nuts, and the roots of woody plants (e.g., peach, pecan, tung, willow) and pines.

Survey and Detection

The results of root feeding by whitefringed beetle larvae can range from scattered areas of a few dead or dying plants within a field to nearly all plants being damaged. Examine roots of affected plants: larval feeding appears as small to large amounts of decortications or partial to complete removal of tap roots(s), below-ground portions of the stem, and some lateral roots.

 

Considerable federal and state control efforts have been directed toward suppression of whitefringed beetles. Quarantine regulations were enacted soon after discovery of the beetles, yet the pests continued to spread.

 

Alfalfa Weevil-Hypera postica, Egyptian Alfalfa Weevil-Hypera brunnipennis. Adult weevils of both species are very similar in appearance and are dark gray and about 0.20 inch long. The legless larva of the alfalfa weevil is about 0.25 inch long when fully grown. It is pale green with a thin white line down the center of the back and has a brown head. Larvae complete their growth in about 3 to 4 weeks. They will then spin a cocoon and pupate either in the leaves of the plant or on the ground. Two identical-looking weevils infest alfalfa in California. They are distinguished by their biology and distribution in the state. The weevils an annual pest in alfalfa districts east of the Sierra Nevada mountains and in the northernmost counties of California. In most other areas of California, it has been displaced by the Egyptian alfalfa weevil, which is a far more serious pest.

Adult weevils of both species are dark gray and about 0.20 inch long. The legless larva of the alfalfa weevil is about 0.25 inch long when fully grown. It is pale green with a thin white line down the center of the back and has a brown head. Larvae complete their growth in about 3 to 4 weeks. They will then spin a cocoon and pupate either in the leaves of the plant or on the ground.

 

Adult  of Egyptian Alfalfa Weevil and Alfalfa Weevil.  Right Image Courtesy Whitney Cranshaw, Colorado State University. Left image Courtesy Howard F. Schwartz, Colorado State University.

Alfalfa weevil overwinters as an adult in field trash or other secluded hiding places and emerges in late winter or early spring. Soon after emergence and mating, the adult females begin inserting their eggs into the alfalfa stems, and hatching larvae make their way up the stem to feed on alfalfa terminals and drop to spin a cocoon and pupate by early summer. This species generally has only one generation a year.

Egyptian alfalfa weevils spend the summer as adults under the loose bark of trees, especially eucalyptus, or in any place they can wedge their bodies, such as in rough-barked trees (walnut) or under shake shingles on homes. In late fall or early winter, they emerge and migrate to alfalfa fields. Soon after entering the fields, adult females begin inserting their eggs into the stems of alfalfa, and hatching larvae make their way into the alfalfa terminals. Egyptian alfalfa weevil has three to four generations a year and may be found in the field throughout the year, although damage is most serious in spring.

The alfalfa weevil is one of the primary insect defoliators of alfalfa. Thought to be of Asian origin, the alfalfa weevil was introduced into the United States from southern Europe. First discovered in 1904 in Utah, it is now present in all 48 mainland states. Annually, insect pests of alfalfa, including the alfalfa weevil and potato leafhopper, cause hundreds of millions of dollars in losses. Though difficult to estimate, these same insects are estimated to reduce yields by 10 to 15% annually (forage quality not taken into account). Introduced biological control agents and natural enemies have reduced alfalfa weevil populations in many areas, though it continues to be a sporadic pest of alfalfa.

Damage. Young larvae damage alfalfa by feeding on terminal buds; larger larvae feed on the leaflets. Feeding by older larvae is the most damaging and is characterized as skeletonization and bronzing of the leaves in spring. Under severe pressure, complete defoliation can occur. Damage from both weevils is most commonly seen before the first cutting. However, while alfalfa weevil may occasionally damage the second or third cutting, Egyptian alfalfa weevil is more likely to cause significant damage to the second cutting and occasionally the third cutting if a second generation occurs. Adult weevils feed on alfalfa but generally do not cause significant damage.

                                                                     Alfalfa Weevil Damage to Alfalfa. Frank Peairs, Colorado State University, United States             

Control. Weevil management in alfalfa is focused on the period before the first cutting. Control options are insecticides and early harvest. Biological control is not effective at preventing economic damage in most areas because populations of natural enemies are not sufficient to provide control in the spring.

Two parasitic wasps, Bathyplectes curculionis and Bathyplectes anurus, have been introduced into California for control of the larval stage of the alfalfa weevil and the EAW. Bathyplectes curculionis is present throughout the range of both alfalfa weevil species in California. Before the Egyptian alfalfa weevil invaded California and spread into most of the areas occupied by the alfalfa weevil, B. curculionis effectively suppressed alfalfa weevil populations in the mid-coastal area.

Bathyplectes anurus has become established in Central Valley alfalfa as well as other locations; however, at the present time it is only found at very low levels. Microctonus aethiopoides, a parasite of the adult weevil, was established and had been recovered from some counties in California in the past, but recent studies indicate that the parasite is absent or present at very low levels throughout the state and does not provide adequate weevil control.

An alfalfa weevil-specific fungus occurs in many alfalfa growing regions in California that aids in biological control. In years experiencing heavy rainfall, this soil-dwelling fungus (Zoophthora phytonomi) sporulates and infects the larval stage, causing death of weevil larval within days of infection. In some regions in California, the fungus maintains weevil populations below the economic threshold of 20 per sweep and may help minimize the need to chemically treat for the weevil.

After alfalfa weevil larvae begin to appear, check fields at 2- to 4-day intervals. Cutting the crop as soon as most of the plants are in the bud stage can sometimes prevent serious damage by the weevil. Also, most weevils are killed by the harvest and curing process. However, early cutting to control weevils concentrates the survivors in the windrows. Closely monitor alfalfa regrowth for the second cutting to detect feeding damage because both larvae and adults can cause injury.

Organically Acceptable Methods. The primary organically acceptable management method is cutting the crop early if damage seems imminent.

 

FAMILY BRENTIDAE-STRAIGHT SNOUTED BEETLES.

 

This is a seldom-collected small family of large beetles.  Little is known about their biology although at least some species are found under bark of trees presumably feed mainly on wood. As with the weevils the head is projected into a snout, but unlike the weevils it projects forward.  Their body shape is characteristic and they possess moniliform or filiform antennae.

 

 

                                                                                                                              A straight snouted beetle.

 

 

Sweetpotato Weevil.  This is the most serious pest of sweet potato, not only in the United States, but around the world. It causes damage in the field, in storage, and is of quarantine significance. It is commonly placed in this family due to its morphology. The body, legs, and head are long and thin, giving it an ant-like appearance. The head is black, the antennae, thorax and legs orange to reddish brown, and the abdomen and elytra are metallic blue. The snout is slightly curved and about as long as the thorax; the antennae are attached at about the midpoint on the snout. The beetle appears smooth and shiny, but close examination shows a layer of short hairs. The adult measures 5.5 to 8.0 mm in length.

 

 

 

                                                                                       Sweet Potato Weevil. Image courtesy Clemson University, USDA.

 

The sweet potato weevil was first noted in the United States in Louisiana in 1875, and then in Florida in 1878 and Texas in 1890, probably entering by way of Cuba. It is now found throughout the coastal plain of the Southeast from North Carolina to Texas. It also is found in Hawaii and Puerto Rico, and widely around the world in tropical regions.

 

A complete life cycle requires one to two months, with 35 to 40 days being common during the summer months. The generations are indistinct, and the number of generations occurring annually is estimated to be five in Texas, and at least eight in Louisiana. Adults do not undergo a period of diapause in the winter, but seek shelter and remain inactive until the weather is favorable. All stages can be found throughout the year if suitable host material is available.

Eggs are deposited in small cavities created by the female with her mouthparts in the sweet potato root or stem. The female deposits a single egg at a time, and seals the egg within the oviposition cavity with a plug of fecal material, making it difficult to observe the egg. Most eggs tend to be deposited near the juncture of the stem and root (tuber). Sometimes the adult will crawl down cracks in the soil to access tubers for oviposition, in preference to depositing eggs in stem tissue. The egg is oval in shape and creamy white in color. Its size is reported to be about 0.7 mm in length and 0.5 mm in width. Duration of the egg stage varies from about five to six days during the summer to about 11 to 12 days during colder weather. Females apparently produce two to four eggs per day or 75 to 90 eggs during their life span of about 30 days. Under laboratory conditions, however, mean fecundity of 122 and 50 to 250 eggs per female has been reported.

When the egg hatches the larva usually burrows directly into the tuber or stem of the plant. Those hatching in the stem usually burrow down into the tuber. The larva is legless, white in color, and displays three instars. The mean head capsule widths of the instars are 0.29 to 0.32 mm, 0.43 to 0.49 mm, and 0.75 to 0.78 mm for instars 1 to 3, respectively. Duration of each instar is 8 to 16, 12 to 21, and 35 to 56 days, respectively. Temperature is the principal factor affecting larval development rate, with larval development (not including the prepupal period) occurring in about 10 and 35 days at 30^o and 24^o C, respectively. The larva creates winding tunnels packed with fecal material as it feeds and grows.

The mature larva creates a small pupal chamber in the tuber or stem. The pupa is similar to the adult in appearance, although the head and elytra are bent ventrally. The pupa measures about 6.5 mm in length. Initially the pupa is white, but with time this stage becomes grayish in color with darker eyes and legs. Duration of the pupal stage averages 7 to 10 days, but in cool weather it may be extended to up to 28 days.

Normally the adult emerges from the pupation site by chewing a hole through the exterior of the plant tissue, but sometimes it remains for a considerable period and feeds within the tuber. The adult is striking in form and color. Under laboratory conditions at 15 C, adults can live over 200 days if provided with food and about 30 days if starved. In contrast, their longevity decreases to about three months if held at 30^o C with food, and eight days without food. Adults are secretive, often feeding on the lower surface of leaves, and are not readily noticed. The adult is quick to feign death if disturbed. Adults can fly, but seem to do so rarely and in short, low flights. However, because they are active mostly at night, their dispersive abilities are probably underestimated. Females feed for a day or more before becoming sexually active, but commence oviposition shortly after mating; the average preoviposition period is seven days. A sex pheromone produced by females has been identified and synthesized.

Among vegetable crops only sweet potato, I. batatas, is a suitable host. Native plants can be important hosts of sweetpotato weevil. Railroad vine, Ipomoea pes-caprae, and morning glory, I. panduratea, are among the suitable wild hosts.

 

Sweetpotato weevil is often considered to be the most serious pest of sweet potato, with reports of losses ranging from5 to 97% in areas where the weevil occurs. The sweet potato tuber is mostly damage with minimal effect on the vine itself. A symptom of infestation by sweet potato weevil is yellowing of the vines, but a heavy infestation is usually necessary before this is apparent. Thus, incipient problems are easily overlooked, and damage not apparent until tubers are harvested. The principal form of damage to sweet potato is mining of the tubers by larvae. The infested tuber is often riddled with cavities, spongy in appearance, and dark in color. In addition to damage caused directly by tunneling, larvae cause damage indirectly by facilitating entry of soil-borne pathogens. Even low levels of feeding induce a chemical reaction that imparts a bitter taste and terpene odor to the tubers. Larvae also mine the vine of the plant, causing it to darken, crack, or collapse. The adult may feed on the tubers, creating numerous small holes that measure about the length of its head. The adult generally has limited access to the tubers, however, so damage by this stage is less severe than by larvae. Adult feeding on the foliage seldom is of consequence.

 

 

FAMILY-ELATERIDAE-CLICK BEETLES

 

The click beetles are so named for the ability of the adults to upright themselves when turned on their backs.  The junction of the prothorax and mesothorax is flexible.  On the underside there is a large spine extending backwards from the prothorax and fitting into a groove in the front part of the mesothorax.  When a beetles is placed on its back it will force the prothorax downward until the spine slips out of this groove resulting in a downward springboard like projection of the prothorax.  As a result the beetle flips up in the air.  If it lands on its back the process is repeated until it lands right side up.  Of course they get their name by the clicking sound made by the spine slipping from the groove click.  Click beetles also have a characteristic body.

 

 

                                                                                            The underside of a click beetle, illustrating the spine extending back from the prothorax.

 

Click Beetles.  These beetles can be large and colorful, but most are small to medium-sized (less than an inch) and dull. The adults are typically nocturnal and phytophagous, but rarely of economic importance. In hot weather, they may enter people's houses at night if entries or windows are left opened but are not a pest. Click beetle larvae, called wireworms, are usually phytophagus with some species serious agricultural pests, and other species are predators of other insect larvae. A few elaterid species are bioluminescent (in both larvae and adult forms).

 

An eyed click beetle, capable of biolimenence.  Image courtesy of http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Henryhartley&action=edit&redlink

Larvae are slender, elongate, cylindrical or somewhat flattened, and relatively hard-shelled for larvae—bearing resemblance to common mealworms. The three pairs of legs on the thoracic segments are short and the last abdominal segment is, as is frequently the case in beetle larvae, directed downwards and may serve as a terminal proleg in some species. Although some species complete their development in one year, wireworms usually spend three or four years in the soil, feeding on decaying vegetation and the roots of plants, and often causing damage to agricultural crops such as potato, strawberry, corn and wheat. The subterranean habits of wireworms, their ability to quickly locate food by following carbon dioxide gradients produced by plant material in the soil, and their remarkable ability to recover from illness induced by insecticide exposure (sometimes after many months), make it hard to exterminate them once they have begun to attack a crop. Wireworms can pass easily through the soil on account of their shape and their propensity for following pre-existing burrows^], and can travel from plant to plant, thus injuring the roots of multiple plants within a short time.

                                                                                               

                                                                                     A click beetle larvae or wireworm.  Image courtesy of Clemson University Entomology, USDA.

 

Wireworms have a relatively long life cycle.  As a consequence it takes a long time to reach damaging populations in a field.  Any procedure that reduces their population in a field can be long lasting and effective. It follows that crop rotation is an important tool in controlling wireworms. Wireworms tend to increase rapidly in red and sweet clover, small grains (particularly barley and wheat), or truck crops. On the other hand, a thrifty, clean stand of alfalfa that is maintained for 3 to 4 years tend to reduce wireworm numbers, because extreme dryness of soil is harmful to most wireworms, and alfalfa serves as a soil-drying crop. Moreover, if alfalfa fields are allowed to dry during the season in which they are out of production, further reduction in wireworm populations can be expected.

 

Birds feeding in recently plowed fields destroy many wireworms. However, the overall pest population is not reduced below economic levels in seriously infested fields. Field tests with entomopathogenic nematodes in wireworm infested fields show that they have not provided effective control of wireworms. Entomopathogenic nematodes show promise for control of flea beetle larvae and mature larvae of Colorado potato beetle. There are no known parasites or biological insecticides known to be effective in controlling wireworms.

 

 

FAMILY-BRUCHIDAE-SEED WEEVILS (ALSO CHRYSOMELIDAE)

 

Members of this family can be recognized by their relatively small size (0.1 to 0.2 inches) and typical wedge shaped body (Figure 181).  In most, the last abdominal segment is quite large and clearly visible when view from above, thus not covered by the elytra.

 

 

 

Bean Weevil-Acanthoscelides obtectus. This weevil can be found throughout North America. This flat, 1/10 to 1/5 inch long weevil is dark green or brown with a darker mottling, and the legs and antennae are reddish.  The weevil lays white eggs in holes chewed along the bean pod seam.  The grubs are small, fat, and white. It produces one generation each year when found existing outside, but when infesting stored beans, they breed continuously.  The outdoor variety hibernate under garden rubbish. This pest attacks bean and pea plants by hatching grubs that feed within the bean or pea seed and then exit through small holes.

                                                                       

                                                                                         Bean Weevil and Infested Beans. Images courtesy Clemson University, USDA

Controls:  The beans can be cured after harvest by uprooting the plants with the pods and suspending them off the ground.  The curing process takes at least six weeks that includes several biological changes including fermentation and the production of heat.  The cured beans can now be shelled and stored in a dry environment without the danger of weevil damage. For stored beans, protect them by heating them up to 135 degrees for a period of three to four hours, or suspend them in a bag of water, heat to 140 degrees and then rapidly dry.

 Pea Weevil- Bruchus pisorum. This is a small reddish brown beetle with dark markings. The body is tear drop shaped and broader at the base, with two large black spots on the rear end. The larvae are small cream grubs, like maggots, that feed within the pea or bean. The Pea Weevil feeds on fresh beans, peas, fresh fruit. It attacks plants growing in the field rather than stored seeds.  The orange eggs are attached onto the surface of the pea and the larva bores directly into the pea seed after it hatches.

Cowpea Weevil-Callosobruchus chinensis.  This weevil is brown and globular in shape. It has long antennae. The elytra are short and patterned with light and dark patches and expose the abdomen. Adults are very active and will fly and run rapidly.

 

 

                                                                                                    Single Cowpea Weevil in a Pea.  Image courtesy Clemson University USDA.

 

The cowpea weevil is abundant in the tropics and much of the United States, especially warmer areas.  Its distribution is limited by environmental conditions.  The cowpea weevil requires high temperatures and moderate relative humidity to develop. The optimal conditions for the weevil to multiply and become a pest are temperatures between 17°C and 37°C and a relative humidity of 90%.

 

The female weevil glues her eggs to the outside of the seed. The larva is white and grub-like with reduced legs. The larva feeds and develops inside the seed. Before pupating the larva excavates an exit passage in the seed for the adult to emerge from. It emerges from the seed as an adult. The cowpea weevil attacks field beans and peas. It then becomes a storage pest in granaries where it breeds continuously on dried pulses. It attacks chickpeas (Cicer sp.), lentils (Lens sp.), garden peas (Pisum sp.) and mung beans (Vigna sp.).

 

The damage is distinctive. Larvae feed and develop inside the seed and when adults emerge they leave a neat circular exit hole. Each adult consumes approximately 25% of the seed from which it develops. As a result unlike related pest species only one weevil is typically found feed in each seed. Heavy infestation causes the commodity to heat. This results in loss of quality and mould growth.

 

15. Tiger beetles often have large bulging eyes, long, slender legs and large curved mandibles and are predatory, both as adults and as larvae.

16. The most common prey for checkered beetles is bark beetles and wood boring beetles. An exception is the red legged ham beetle.

17. The lead cable borer is drawn to the heat absorbed by lead and even asphalt roofing.  The main damage due to this activity occurs in the lead sheathing of telephone wire.

18. Signs of powderpost beetle damages inside wood is not visible until the adult emergence and completion of their life cycle.

19. Bark beetles cannot survive in seasoned wood, or even in trees that have been cut for a year or more, they are not a structural pest. 

20. The light is emitted by fireflies comes from a gland located on the underside of the abdomen and is produced by the oxidation of luciferin when in the presence of an enzyme called luciferase.

21. The click beetles are so named for the ability of the adults to upright themselves when turned on their backs. 

22.  The Larval stage of click beetle are wireworm, a considerable pest living in soil and attacking roots of plants.